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{{short description|Muslim philosopher-scholar of Islamics and comparative religion}}
[[File:Ismail-al-faruqi-photo.jpg|thumb|upright|Isma'il Raji' al-Faruqi]]
'''Ismaʿil Raji al-Faruqi''' (إسماعيل راجي الفاروقي January 1, 1921 – May 27, 1986) was a Palestinian-American [[Muslim]] philosopher and scholar who worked extensively in [[Islamic studies]] and interfaith dialogue. He spent several years at [[Al-Azhar University]] in Cairo and taught at universities in North America, including McGill University in Montreal, Canada. Al-Faruqi was a professor of religion at Temple University, where he founded and chaired the Islamic Studies program. He also co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). Al-Faruqi authored more than 100 articles and 25 books, including ''[[Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas]]'' (1967) and ''[[Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life]]'' (1982), examining Islamic thought, ethics, the concept of monotheism, and interfaith relations.  

In 1986, Al-Faruqi and his wife, [[Lois Lamya al-Faruqi]], were murdered in their home in Pennsylvania. The case drew widespread attention, as their loss deeply affected the academic and interfaith communities.<ref>"Isma'il R. al-Faruqi: January 1, 1921–May 27, 1986," ''Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science'', vol. 21, no. 4, 1986, p. 549.</ref> <ref>Dina Ripsman Eylon, "Faruqi, Isma'il Raji al- (1921-1986), scholar of religion and Islamic social activist," in ''American National Biography'', 2000.</ref> <ref>Sulayman S. Nyang, "In Memoriam," ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'', vol. 3, no. 1, 1986, pp. 6–9.</ref>

== Biography ==
=== Early life and education ===
Al-Faruqi was born in Jaffa, in British mandate [[Palestine]].<ref name="Yusuf2021">Imtiyaz Yusuf (ed.), ''Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi'', Kuala Lumpur: IBT Books, 2021, p. 3.</ref><ref name="OxfordIslam">"Faruqi, Ismail Raji al- (1986)", ''The Oxford Dictionary of Islam'', Oxford Reference. Available at: [https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095811314] (Accessed: 4 July 2024).</ref> His father, 'Abd al-Huda al-Faruqi, was an Islamic judge (''[[qadi]]''). Al-Faruqi received his early religious education at home and in the local mosque. His father's influence significantly shaped al-Faruqi's early religious and moral education.<ref name="Badri2014">Malik Badri, "Psychological reflections on Ismail al-Faruqi's life and contributions," in ''The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'', vol. 31, no. 2, 2014, pp. 145–152</ref>
 
In 1936, he began attending the French Dominican Collège des Frères de Jaffa.<ref name="Yusuf2021" /><ref name="Esposito2001">John L. Esposito and John O. Voll, "Ismail al-Faruqi", in ''Makers of Contemporary Islam'', Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 52–70.</ref> Later al-Faruqi moved to [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]], where he continued his studies at the American University of Beirut (AUB). At AUB, al-Faruqi was influenced by Arab nationalist movements and prominent Christian Arab nationalists such as Constantin Zureiq, Nabih Amin Faris, and Nicola Ziadeh. These influences contributed to his adoption of Arabism.<ref name="Badri2014" /> The academic environment at AUB included compulsory attendance of Christian missionary lectures and courses promoting Western modernity, which influenced his ideological development.<ref name="Badri2014" />

In 1942, he was appointed as a registrar of cooperative societies under the British Mandate government in [[Jerusalem]]. In 1945, he became the district governor of Galilee.<ref name="OxfordIslam" /> Following the 1948 [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|Arab-Israeli War]], he enrolled at Indiana University, obtaining his M.A. in philosophy with a thesis titled ''The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics)'' in 1949.<ref>Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi, ''The Ethics of Reason and the Ethics of Life (Kantian and Nietzschean Ethics)'', Master's thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1949.</ref> He followed this with a second M.A. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1951 and earned his Ph.D. with a thesis titled ''On Justifying the Good'' from Indiana University in 1952.<ref name="PhDThesis">Isma'il al-Faruqi, ''On Justifying the Good'', PhD thesis, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1952.</ref> During this period, he met and married [[Lois Lamya al-Faruqi]].

In his master's thesis, al-Faruqi examined the ethics of Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche. His early philosophical work laid the groundwork for his later critiques of Western ethical systems and his development of Islamic ethical thought.<ref name="Zebiri35">{{Cite book |last=Zebiri |first=Kate | title=Muslims and Christians Face to Face |year=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1851681337 |pages=35–37 | language=en}}</ref> In his doctoral thesis, al-Faruqi argued that values are absolute, self-existent essences known [[a priori]] through emotional intuition. He based his theories on Max Scheler's use of phenomenology and Nicolai Hartmann's studies in ethics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheler |first=Max |title=On the Eternal Man |year=1960 |publisher=SCM Press |location=London |translator=Bernard Noble}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Scheler |first=Max |title=Man's Place in Nature |year=1961 |publisher=Beacon Press |location=Boston |language=en}}</ref> His studies led him to conclude that the absence of a transcendent foundation leads to moral relativism, prompting him to reassess his Islamic heritage.

Within six years of arriving in the United States, he recognized the need for a more thorough study of Islam, which led him to study at Egypt's Al-Azhar University from 1954 to 1958.<ref>{{cite book |year=2021 |title=Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi |location=Kuala Lumpur |publisher=IBT Books |editor=Imtiyaz Yusuf |page=4}}</ref> By the time he left the United States, he had developed new questions about moral obligations and sought to integrate his intellectual pursuits with his Islamic identity.<ref name="Fletcher2014">{{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Charles |title=Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Inter-faith Dialogue and the Work of Ismail Al-Faruqi |date=2014 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |location=United Kingdom |page=34 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Academic career ===
In 1958, al-Faruqi was offered a visiting fellowship at McGill University's Faculty of Divinity. He joined the Institute of Islamic Studies at the invitation of its founder, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, teaching alongside Smith from 1958 to 1961.<ref name="Montreal">{{cite news |title=Islamic scholar slain in U.S. was figure in Montreal |last=Balfour |first=Clair |date=July 31, 1986 |work=The Gazette |location=Montreal |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19860731&id=sBUyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DaYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3896,4415821}}</ref> During this time, he studied Christian theology and Judaism, becoming acquainted with Pakistani philosopher Fazlur Rahman Malik. Fazlur Rahman observed that al-Faruqi's immersion in these traditions under Smith's mentorship was pivotal, refining his comparative outlook on religious studies and interfaith dialogue.<ref name="Rahman1990">{{cite journal |last=Rahman |first=Fazlur |title=Palestine and My Experiences with the Young Faruqi: 1958 to 1963 |journal=Journal of Islamic Research |volume=4 |issue=4 |year=1990 |pages=295–300 |language=tr |translator=M. Hayri Kırbaşoğlu}}</ref><ref name="Zebiri42">{{Cite book |last=Zebiri |first=Kate |title=Muslims and Christians Face to Face |year=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1851681337 |pages=42–44 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1961, Fazlur Rahman facilitated a two-year appointment for al-Faruqi at the Central Institute of Islamic Research in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]], where he served as a visiting professor until 1963.<ref name="Yusuf2021" /> Fazlur Rahman later highlighted this experience as deepening al-Faruqi's understanding of cultural diversity within Islam, an influence that shaped his subsequent theories on comparative religion and meta-religion.<ref name="Rahman1990"/><ref name="Zebiri90">{{Cite book |last=Zebiri |first=Kate |title=Muslims and Christians Face to Face |year=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1851681337 |pages=90 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Siddiqui73">{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Ataullah | title=Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London |isbn=0333673581 |pages=73 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1964, al-Faruqi returned to the United States, where he held concurrent roles as a visiting professor at the University of Chicago's Divinity School and as an associate professor at Syracuse University.
In 1968, he joined Temple University as a professor of religion, where he founded the Islamic Studies Program and held the position until he died in 1986.<ref name="Yusuf2014">{{cite journal |last=Yusuf |first=Imtiyaz |title=Ismail al-Faruqi's Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=53 |issue=1/2 |pages=108–110 |date=Spring–Summer 2014 |publisher=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad |doi=10.52541/isiri.v53i1-2.181 |jstor=44627369 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44627369}}</ref> During his tenure at Temple University, al-Faruqi mentored many students, including his first doctoral student, John Esposito.<ref name="Quraishi1986">{{cite book |last=Quraishi |first=M. Tariq |title=Ismail al-Faruqi: An Enduring Legacy |date=1986 |publisher=MSA Publications |page=9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="AJISS">{{cite journal |title=Editorial |journal=The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences |volume=28 |issue=3 |year=2011 |pages=ii-xii |language=en}}</ref>

=== Death and burial ===
[[File:Faruqi-grave-tombstone.png|thumb|Shared grave marker of the Faruqis.]]

In May 1986, Ismail al-Faruqi and his wife, Lois Lamya al-Faruqi, were murdered at their home in Wyncote, Pennsylvania, by Joseph Louis Young, also known as Yusuf Ali.<ref name="OxfordIslam" /> Young, who had prior associations with the local Muslim community, confessed to the crime, was sentenced to death, and died in prison of natural causes in 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/18/us/black-muslim-charges-in-slaying-of-islamic-scholar-and-his-wife.html|title=Black Muslim Charged in Slaying of Islamic Scholar and His Wife|date=January 18, 1987|website=[[The New York Times]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mcall.com/1987/07/08/confession-details-stalking-slaying-of-islamic-scholars/|title=Confession Details Stalking, Slaying Of Islamic Scholars|last=O'Bryan|first=Ruth|date=July 8, 1987|website=The Morning Call|access-date=May 13, 2018|archive-date=July 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702011159/http://articles.mcall.com/1987-07-08/news/2595065_1_confession-young-knife|url-status=live |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pointdebasculecanada.ca/inside-the-capitol-joseph-louis-young-dies-of-natural-causes-on-death-row/|title=Inside the Capitol (Joseph Louis Young dies of natural causes on death row)|last=Bell|first=Adam|date=March 11, 1996|website=The Patriot News}}</ref> Their daughter, Anmar al-Zein, who was pregnant at the time, survived multiple stab wounds and required extensive medical treatment.<ref name="PhillyInquirer">{{Cite news |title=Statement Is Said to Back Religious-Attack Theory |first1=S. A. |last1=Paolantonio |first2=Paul |last2=Duggan |newspaper=Philadelphia Inquirer |date=1987-01-18 |page=A.8 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1831221807|id={{ProQuest|1831221807}} |language=en}}</ref> The murder shocked academic and interfaith communities, prompting tributes that reinforced his legacy.
During a conference at the International Islamic University Malaysia in 2008, Anis Ahmad shared that al-Faruqi had once confided in him about his father's two supplications: that he might become a great scholar and die as a ''[[shahid]]'' (martyr). Al-Faruqi is reported to have wondered, "Now I am a scholar, but how can I die a ''shahid'' in the US?" Malik Badri reflected that "Allah Ta'ala accepted both supplications."<ref name="Badri2014" />

==Philosophy and thought==
===Early thought: Arabism===
Al-Faruqi's early intellectual focus centered on ''‘urubah'' (Arabism).<ref name="Esposito2001" /> He argued that ''‘urubah'' was the core identity uniting all Muslims into a single community of believers (''ummah'') and viewed Arabic as essential for fully understanding Islamic teachings, as it is the language of the Qur’an. Initially focused on ''‘urubah'' as central to Muslim unity, al-Faruqi's experiences abroad gradually broadened his focus to encompass a wider Islamic identity beyond an Arab-centric view.<ref name="Rahman1990" /><ref name="Mukhetdinov2018">{{cite journal |last=Mukhetdinov |first=D. V. |title=Philosophy of Ismail Raji al-Faruqi: In Search of Neomodernism |journal=Islam in the Modern World |volume=2 |year=2018 |pages=165–182 |doi=10.22311/2074-1529-2018-14-2-165-182 |language=ru|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Al-Faruqi held that ''‘urubah'' intertwined both linguistic and religious dimensions, asserting that Islam and monotheism represented Arabism's contributions to humanity. He contended that restoring Islamic civilization depended on revitalizing Arabic as a central unifying cultural force for Muslims globally.<ref name="Urubah">{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il R. |title='Urubah and Religion: An Analysis of the Dominant Ideas of Arabism and of Islam as Its Highest Moment of Consciousness |series=On Arabism |volume=1 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Djambatan |year=1962 |language=en}}</ref> His portrayal of Arabism extended beyond nationalism, positioning it as an ideological bridge across ethnic divides within Islam.<ref name="Esposito2001" /><ref name="Siddiqui85">{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Ataullah | title=Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London |isbn=0333673581 |pages=85 |language=en}}</ref>
Central to al-Faruqi's thought was ''tawhid'' (monotheism), which he described as a defining element of Arab religious consciousness. He argued that the shared monotheistic roots of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism underscored Arabism's contribution to world religion, contrasting this with contemporary ideologies that promoted division and nationalism.<ref name="Bakar">{{cite book |last=Bakar |first=Osman |title=The Intellectual Impact of American Muslim Scholars on the Muslim World, with Special Reference to Southeast Asia |editor-last=Strum |editor-first=Philippa |date=2005 |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars |isbn=1-933549-98-X |pages=96–97 |language=en}}</ref> Al-Faruqi maintained that Islam's revival necessitated the elevation of Arabic language and culture, advocating for them as unifying elements for Muslims across diverse regions.<ref name="Siddiqui80">{{Cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Ataullah | title=Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Macmillan Press Ltd |location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire and London |isbn=0333673581 |pages=80 |language=en}}</ref>
Despite al-Faruqi's deep commitment to ''‘urubah'', scholars often critiqued his stance as being essentialist, arguing it risked marginalizing non-Arab Muslims. Some felt his assertion that Arabic was uniquely suited for Islamic thought neglected the rich intellectual contributions from non-Arab Muslims throughout history. These critiques, particularly from non-Arab Muslim intellectuals, highlighted concerns that his early philosophy prioritized Arab culture over Islam's universal aspects.<ref name="Chejne">{{cite journal | last = Chejne | first = Anwar G. | date = Summer 1963 | title = Review of ''On Arabism, 'Urubah and Religion: A Study of the Fundamental Ideas of Arabism and Islam at Its Highest Moment of Consciousness'', by Isma'il Ragi A. al-Faruqi | journal = Middle East Journal | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 330–331 | publisher = Middle East Institute | jstor = 4323622 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/4323622 | access-date = 23 June 2024 |language=en}}</ref> His exposure to Pakistan's diverse Islamic culture, however, began to influence his perspective, gradually moving him away from an Arab-exclusive viewpoint.<ref name="Fletcher2015">{{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Charles D. |title=Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi |location=London |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015 |pages=35–37}}</ref>
His experiences abroad, particularly in Pakistan, broadened his perspective and led him to reconsider the Arab-centric lens through which he initially viewed Islam. Exposure to diverse Muslim societies prompted him to recognize a more expansive Muslim identity beyond language or ethnicity, embracing a universal spiritual ethos. Over time, this broadened vision emphasised Islamic unity that prioritized shared spiritual and ethical dimensions. This shift reflected al-Faruqi's belief in a transnational Islamic civilization, fostering unity across linguistic and cultural boundaries.<ref name="Mukhetdinov2018" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sonn |first=Tamara |title=Arab Americans in Education: Cultural Ambassadors? |journal=Arab Studies Quarterly |volume=11 |issue=2/3 |year=1989 |pages=127–139 |publisher=Pluto Journals |jstor=41859061 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41859061}}</ref>
===Ethics and value theory===
Al-Faruqi's philosophical inquiries included a critique of Kantian ethics, particularly regarding moral universality, which he sought to develop further within an Islamic ethical framework. In his PhD thesis, ''On Justifying the Good'' (1952),<ref name="PhDThesis" /> al-Faruqi explored philosophical questions related to goodness, value, and ethics, engaging critically with Western ethical theories. Drawing from the works of philosophers like Scheler and Kant, al-Faruqi identified two main fallacies in ethical reasoning: the naturalistic fallacy and the ambiguity fallacy. He argued that the naturalistic fallacy arises when ethical concepts are conflated with natural human desires. Al-Faruqi criticized John Stuart Mill's association of happiness with desirability, positing that this view risks equating ethical value with subjective desires, which he saw as potentially leading to ethical relativism.<ref name="OnJustifyingTheGood">Jasser Auda, قراءة في أطروحة الدكتوراه للمرحوم إسماعيل الفاروقي: حول إثبات الخير ("A Critical Reading of Ismail al-Faruqi's PhD Thesis: On Justifying the Good"), ''Islamization of Knowledge Journal'', Fall 2013 (VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2013). [Arabic]</ref>

Al-Faruqi's analysis of the ambiguity fallacy focused on what he described as the attribution of value based on ambiguous standards. He argued that philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel sometimes conflated terms like "utility" and "value" without providing clear distinctions. According to al-Faruqi, defining virtues primarily in terms of happiness could obscure the true nature of ethical value. He proposed that values should be understood independently of empirical or relative standards and claimed they are known ''a priori'' through emotional intuition rather than empirical observation.<ref name="OnJustifyingTheGood" />
In his examination of Scheler's theories, al-Faruqi proposed a classification of values, distinguishing between intrinsic and absolute values. He argued that these values exist independently of empirical influences and asserted that they represent a foundation for ethical inquiry. Al-Faruqi's framework in [[value theory]] was intended to provide an alternative to what he viewed as limitations in Western ethical thought. His dissertation laid the groundwork for his later efforts to integrate Islamic principles into modern academic disciplines, contributing to his broader concept of the Islamization of knowledge.<ref name="OnJustifyingTheGood" />

===Shift to Islamism===
<div style="float: left; width: 200px; margin-right: 20px; font-size: 90%; font-family: sans-serif; color: #333; border: 1px solid #ccc; padding: 15px; background-color: #f9f9f9;">“Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine.” —Isma'il al-Faruqi<ref name="BaYunus" /></div>

Al-Faruqi's perspectives shifted significantly after relocating to the United States, where his involvement with the [[Muslim Students Association]] (MSA) at Temple University exposed him to a diverse array of Muslim students. This experience prompted him to reconsider his earlier emphasis on Arabism, moving instead toward a broader Islamic identity over Arab nationalism. [[Malik Badri]] described this transformation, noting that, "For the first time in his life, al-Faruqi met a group of young students who shattered his conceptualization of Arabism. He had to submit to Islam as the ummah's real binding force – especially since Arabs are only a small minority within it."<ref name="Badri2014" /> Al-Faruqi himself articulated this shift by stating, "Until a few months ago, I was a Palestinian, an Arab, and a Muslim. Now I am a Muslim who happens to be an Arab from Palestine".<ref name="BaYunus">{{cite journal |last=Ba-Yunus |first=Ilyas |title=Al Faruqi and Beyond: Future Directions in Islamization of Knowledge |journal=The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences |volume=5 |issue=1 |year=1988 |page=14}}</ref> He further remarked, "I asked myself: Who am I? A Palestinian, a philosopher, a liberal humanist? My answer was: I am a Muslim".<ref name="Quraishi1986" />

In his later years, al-Faruqi emphasized the significance of Islamic law as a framework for shaping ethical and societal norms. He described legal measures, such as penalties for theft and adultery, as deterrents designed to foster discipline and prevent societal harm. Al-Faruqi viewed these laws as part of a larger effort, centered on education, to instill ethical behavior and cultivate a just society.<ref>{{cite news |last=Arnold |first=David |title=Education only hope, says Islamic scholar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CvlVAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA58ARTICLE_ID=5087,2949544 |newspaper=The Register-Guard |date=March 22, 1981 |access-date=December 9, 2024}}</ref>
In his exploration of Islam's role in North America, al-Faruqi also highlighted the historical contributions and challenges of African Muslims, from early settlement to the influences of Elijah Muhammad and [[Malcolm X]] on the Islamic movement among African Americans. His insights on the ethical foundations of Islam, the concept of the [[Ummah]], and the responsibilities of Muslim immigrants have played a role in shaping the Muslim experience in North America.<ref name="IslamicIdeals">{{cite book |last1=al-Faruqi |first1=Ismail R. |chapter=Islamic Ideals in North America |editor1-last=Waugh |editor1-first=Earle H. |editor2-last=Abu-Laban |editor2-first=Baha |editor3-last=Qureshi |editor3-first=Regula B. |title=The Muslim Community in North America |year=1983 |publisher=University of Alberta Press |location=Edmonton, Alberta |isbn=088864034X |oclc=243596066 |pages=260–270 |language=en}}</ref>

This shift also influenced his approach to interfaith dialogue. Al-Faruqi believed that a unified Islamic identity was essential for fostering meaningful interactions with non-Muslim communities. His involvement in the MSA and his exposure to diverse Muslim backgrounds in the U.S. reinforced his commitment to a broader, inclusive Islamic identity over his earlier Arab-centric views.<ref name="Fletcher2015"/>

===Views on Tawhid===
<div style="float: right; width: 30%; font-size: 90%; padding: 15px; border: 1px solid #ccc; background-color: #f9f9f9; font-family: sans-serif; color: #333;">Al-Tawhid is that which gives Islamic civilization its identity, which binds all its constituents together and thus makes of them an integral, organic body which we call civilization. In binding disparate elements together, the essence of civilization in this case, ''al tawhid''—impresses them by its own mould. It recasts them to harmonize with and mutually support other elements. —Isma'il al-Faruqi<ref name="Faruqi_TawhidQuote">Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi, ''Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life'', International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982, p. 17.</ref></div>

Al-Faruqi's views on ''tawhid'' included a critical perspective on [[Sufism]], which he considered to emphasize mysticism and esoteric practices. He critiqued Sufism for its mysticism, arguing that it often detracted from the rational and practical aspects of Islam.<ref name="Zebiri53">{{Cite book |last=Zebiri |first=Kate |title=Muslims and Christians Face to Face |year=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1851681337 |pages=53–55}}</ref> Al-Faruqi was inspired by [[Mu'tazilism|Mu'tazilī]] theologians such as [[Ibrahim al-Nazzam|al-Nazzam]] and [[Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar]], who advocated for the use of reason and logic in understanding Islamic principles. Additionally, he found value in the works of the [[Brethren of Purity]] (''Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ''), whose writings combined Islamic teachings with elements of Greek philosophy.<ref name="Yusuf2022">{{cite encyclopedia | last=Yusuf | first=Imtiyaz | title=Ismail Al Faruqi | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam | editor1-last=Fleet | editor1-first=Kate | editor2-last=Krämer | editor2-first=Gudrun | editor3-last=Matringe | editor3-first=Denis | editor4-last=Nawas | editor4-first=John | editor5-last=Rowson | editor5-first=Everett | volume=3 | publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV | year=2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Al-Faruqi's emphasis on ''tawhid'' went beyond theology, encompassing an integrated approach that unified rational thought, ethics, and social responsibility across all aspects of life.<ref name="OxfordIslam" /> He argued that ''tawhid'' is "that which gives Islamic civilization its identity, which binds all its constituents together and thus makes of them an integral, organic body".<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il Raji |title=Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life |year=1982 |location=Herndon, VA |publisher=IIIT |page=35 |language=en}}</ref> Al-Faruqi explains:

<div style="margin-left: 20px; padding-left: 10px; border-left: 2px solid #ccc; background-color: #f9f9f9;">
<p style="font-size: 100%;">To acknowledge that there is no god but Allah (SWT) is to recognize Him as sole Creator, Lord and Judge of the world. It follows from this witnessing that man was created for a purpose, since God does not work in vain; and that this purpose is the realization of the divine will as it pertains to this world in which human life finds its theater.<ref name="FaruqiTawhid">al-Faruqi, Isma'il Raji. ''Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life''. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 1982, p. 91.</ref></p>
</div>

He also asserted that this principle "purges religion clean of all doubt regarding the transcendence and unicity of the Godhead."<ref>Al-Faruqi, Isma'il Raji. ''Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life''. Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1982, p. 46.</ref>

This approach extended to his vision of secularism and materialism, which he viewed as challenges to Islamic unity and ethical integrity. Al-Faruqi argued that Islam's vision for society requires an integrated worldview where ''tawhid'' "marks a complete secularization of the natural world to allow for the development of the sciences," thus separating the sacred from nature while upholding a unified ethical framework.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il Raji |title=Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life |year=1982 |location=Herndon, VA |publisher=IIIT |page=52 }}</ref> His response to Western secular ideologies was rooted in a belief that ''tawhid'' calls for a holistic framework where reason and faith work together, as opposed to the spiritual-material divide seen in secular ideologies.<ref name="Mukhetdinov2018" />

===Meta-religion===
Al-Faruqi sought to establish principles of meta-religion grounded in reason, aiming to evaluate religions by universal standards rather than by comparing them against each other. This approach was intended to find common ground for cooperation among diverse faiths. Central to his concept of meta-religion is a shared, intrinsic belief in the One God, which he argued represents the original "pure form of faith" predating the diversification of religions. As al-Faruqi envisioned, meta-religion is distinct from historical religion, focusing on universal principles rooted in ''fitrah'' (natural religion) as a basis for mutual understanding and interfaith cooperation.<ref name="SharifOsman2018">{{cite journal |author1=Mohd Farid bin Mohd Sharif |author2=Ahmad Sabri bin Osman |year=2018 |title="Din Al-Fitrah" According to al-Faruqi and His Understandings about Religious Pluralism |journal=International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=663–676 |language=en}}</ref>
Within this framework, ''din al-fitrah'' is an innate human disposition toward the divine, suggesting that meta-religion provides an internalized recognition of truth that transcends specific religious labels. This perspective supports a form of interfaith understanding that acknowledges shared spiritual foundations without equating the doctrinal specifics of each faith. Rather than affirming religious pluralism in its conventional sense, meta-religion upholds that religions mirror varying degrees of the original monotheistic truth inherent in human nature.<ref name="SharifOsman2018"/>
To facilitate dialogue, al-Faruqi proposed several guiding principles: all dialogue should be open to critique, communication must adhere to laws of internal and external coherence, dialogue should align with reality and remain free from "canonical figurizations," and discussions should emphasize ethical questions over theological disputes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fletcher |first=Charles D. |title=Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi |location=London |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2015 |pages=43–45}}</ref> Al-Faruqi's concept of meta-religion involves a belief in God or Ultimate Reality as the "totally other." He emphasized that Islam, as a universal meta-religion preached by all prophets, centers on the concept of ''tawhid'', which encompasses both the oneness and transcendence of God and humanity's duty to reflect divine harmony within the world.<ref name="Mukhetdinov2018"/>
Al-Faruqi also asserted that the study of religion should focus less on validating its truth through external or functional measures and more on understanding the condition of the ''homo religiosus''—the naturally religious human being with an inherent awareness of the divine.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yusuf |first=Imtiyaz |title=Ismail al-Faruqi's Contribution to the Academic Study of Religion |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=53 |issue=1/2 |pages=99–115 |date=Spring–Summer 2014 |publisher=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University, Islamabad |doi=10.52541/isiri.v53i1-2.181 |jstor=44627369 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44627369}}</ref>
For al-Faruqi, meta-religious dialogue served as a vehicle for fostering mutual understanding and respect among faith communities, bridging the gaps created by doctrinal differences. His emphasis on ethics over theology was intended to support more constructive and less contentious interfaith engagements.<ref name="Fletcher2015" />
=== Comparative religion ===
Al-Faruqi’s work in comparative religion aimed to create a framework for respectful engagement among diverse faith traditions. He explored philosophical contrasts and convergences between Islam and Christianity, especially regarding interpretations of Hebrew scripture. He emphasized that interreligious dialogue was a public pastime and a common topic in intellectual circles during the peak of Islamic civilization, showcasing its historical precedence.<ref name="Yousif2017">{{cite book |last=Yousif |first=Ahmad F. |title=Studies in World Religions: An Introduction to Monotheistic Traditions |year=2017 |publisher=UNISSA Press |location=Bandar Seri Begawan |isbn=9789991765464 |pages=Introduction |language=en}}</ref> His approach examined differing hermeneutical methods and theological frameworks, identifying shared values that could support interfaith dialogue while respecting doctrinal distinctions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il R. |title=Isma'il Al Faruqi: Selected Essays |editor=International Institute of Islamic Thought |chapter=A Comparison of the Islamic and Christian Approaches to Hebrew Scripture |pages=219–235 |location=London, Washington |publisher=IIIT |year=2018 |isbn=9781565645981 |language=en}}</ref> He believed in the value of dialogue initiated based on mutual respect and ethical considerations, stating that "conversion to the truth is the aim of dialogue," reflecting his commitment to honest interfaith engagement.<ref name="Smith2004">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane I. |chapter=Muslims as Partners in Interfaith Encounter |title=Muslims' Place in the American Public Square: Hope, Fears, and Aspirations |editor1-last=Bukhari |editor1-first=Zahid H. |editor2-last=Nyang |editor2-first=Sulayman S. |editor3-last=Ahmad |editor3-first=Mumtaz |editor4-last=Esposito |editor4-first=John L. |year=2004 |publisher=AltaMira Press |location=Walnut Creek, CA |page=188 |isbn=0759106126 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Christian-Ethics-Book-By-Ismail-Faruqi.png|thumb|right|200px|Cover of the 1967 edition of ''Christian Ethics'']]

Al-Faruqi argued that, unlike Islam, Christianity lacks explicit foundations for structuring social frameworks such as law and economics, which he viewed as essential to societal cohesion:

<div style="margin-left: 20px; padding-left: 10px; border-left: 2px solid #ccc; background-color: #f9f9f9;">
The lack of foundation in the Christianist dogma for a sound societism perturbed the Christian mind very strongly during the last one hundred years. The growth of urban centers, of industry, of the means of communication, brought about a realization of the need for a new kind of social cohesion... But the Church, being the loyal guardian of that legacy, could answer him only in paradoxes which availed nothing... It was not that the Church could have helped but refrained—it really did its acrobatic best—but that there was no way to obvert the fact that Jesus’ message was not a societist one.<ref name="ChristianEthics">Al-Faruqi, Isma'il Raji. ''Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas''. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1967, pp. 279–280.</ref></p>
</div>

He further observed what he viewed as a fundamental internal conflict in Western ethics stemming from this dualistic legacy, stating:

<div style="margin-left: 20px; padding-left: 10px; border-left: 2px solid #ccc; background-color: #f9f9f9;">
<p style="font-size: 100%;">Ever since he became a Christian, Western man has lived a split life and suffered from a split personality. Jesus and his ethical renunciation on the one hand, and nature with its self-assertion, nature-affirmation and ‘worldliness’ on the other, divided his loyalty and being. Although he conducted his life oblivious to Jesus’ emphasis on the spiritual over and against the material, yet he invoked Jesus’ blessing for every move.<ref name="ChristianEthics" /></p>
</div>

In addition to his exploration of Christian theology, al-Faruqi engaged with contemporary Western philosophy, examining ethics through thinkers like Kant, Scheler, and Hartmann. His comparative studies also extended into ethical and metaphysical questions, where he highlighted differing value systems between Western and Islamic thought.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il R. |title=Isma'il Al Faruqi: Selected Essays |editor=International Institute of Islamic Thought |chapter=The Problem of the Metaphysical Status of Values in the Western and Islamic Traditions |pages=251–268 |location=London, Washington |publisher=IIIT |year=2018 |isbn=9781565645981 |language=en}}</ref>
In examining religious traditions historically, al-Faruqi saw potential for interfaith dialogue that acknowledges shared principles alongside distinctive beliefs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il R. |title=Isma'il Al Faruqi: Selected Essays |editor=International Institute of Islamic Thought |chapter=History of Religions: Its Nature and Significance for Christian Education and the Muslim-Christian Dialogue |pages=236–250 |location=London, Washington |publisher=IIIT |year=2018 |isbn=9781565645981 |language=en}}</ref> Al-Faruqi argued that Western ethics often emphasize individualism, whereas Islamic ethics prioritize communal welfare and divine accountability. These contrasting frameworks, he suggested, shape each tradition's broader views on morality, existence, and purpose.<ref name="ChristianEthics" />
Some critics, such as Damian Howard, suggest that al-Faruqi's approach to interfaith engagement emphasizes Islamic viewpoints more than fostering reciprocal understanding across faiths, potentially limiting the dialogue’s depth and inclusiveness.<ref name="Howard">{{cite journal |last=Howard |first=Damian |title=Review of Muslim-Christian Engagement in the Twentieth Century: The Principles of Interfaith Dialogue and the Work of Isma'il al-Faruqi, by Charles D. Fletcher |journal=Entangled Religions |volume=2 |year=2015 |doi=10.13154/er.v2.2015.XXXV-XXXIX |language=en}}</ref>

===Islamization of knowledge===
Al-Faruqi was instrumental in conceptualizing holistic knowledge, a framework that integrates Islamic principles with modern disciplines, an approach often described as neo-modernist. Concerned about the secularization of knowledge in Muslim societies, al-Faruqi advocated for a holistic epistemology, reinterpreting Islamic thought to address contemporary challenges.<ref name="FaruqiScientist0:12" /><ref name="Mukhetdinov2018" /> He described what he called "the malaise of the ummah," arguing that reliance on Western tools and methodologies led to a disconnection from ecological and social realities in Muslim nations, often overlooking essential Islamic ethics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ahsan |first=Muhammad Amimul |title=Islamization of Knowledge: An Agenda for Muslim Intellectuals |journal=Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration and Management |volume=13 |issue=10 |year=2013}}</ref> Al-Faruqi emphasized the integration of Islamic values within modern knowledge systems to help preserve the ethical fabric of the Muslim community.<ref name="Bakar" />
The later part of al-Faruqi's career concentrated on the [[Islamization of knowledge]] concept.<ref name="Yusuf2014" /> Responding to what he saw as the secularization and Western dominance of Muslim educational systems, he envisioned an integration of Islamic values with contemporary scientific and academic disciplines, ultimately striving for an epistemology rooted in ethical integrity.<ref name="Zebiri67">{{Cite book |last=Zebiri |first=Kate |title=Muslims and Christians Face to Face |year=1997 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1851681337 |pages=67–69}}</ref> This concept included economic principles such as ''zakat'' and prohibitions on usury to ensure that economic activity aligned with Islamic ethics.<ref name="Mukhetdinov2018"/> His ideas eventually led to the founding of IIIT, which aimed to create an Islamic epistemology and methodology applicable across disciplines.<ref name="IoK">{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il Raji |title=Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and Work Plan |publisher=IIIT |year=1982 |language=en}}</ref>
Al-Faruqi's methodology also extended to social sciences, where he advocated frameworks that retained Islamic ethical considerations while critiquing Western secularism. His goal was to replace secular principles with a foundation built on Islamic ethics that aligned with the values of the ummah.<ref name="Mukhetdinov2018" /> He envisioned a unified Islamic curriculum that incorporated contemporary disciplines while firmly grounding them in Islamic thought.<ref name="Hashim">{{cite journal |last1=Hashim |first1=Rosnani |last2=Rossidy |first2=Imron |title=Islamization of Knowledge: A Comparative Analysis of the Conceptions of Al-Attas and Al-Faruqi |journal=Intellectual Discourse |volume=8 |issue=1 |year=2000 |pages=19–45 |language=en}}</ref> This approach sought to produce scholars capable of addressing modern challenges from an Islamic perspective, stressing both curriculum development and practical strategies for reforming educational systems.<ref name="Fletcher2015" />
Some scholars, such as [[Ibrahim Kalin]], have critiqued al-Faruqi's focus on humanities, arguing it left the natural sciences largely unexamined. Kalin describes al-Faruqi's work as an example of how "the idea of method or methodology (''manhaj'' and ''manhajiyyah'')... can obscure deeper philosophical issues involved in the current discussions of science."<ref name="Kalin">{{cite book |title=God, Life, and the Cosmos: Christian and Islamic Perspectives |edition=First |editor1=Ted Peters |editor2=Muzaffar Iqbal |editor3=Syed Nomanul Haq |chapter=Chapter 2: Three Views of Science in the Islamic World |pages=60–61 | author=Ibrahim Kalin |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=9780754608837 |language=en | quote=Ismail Faruqi's work known under the rubric of 'Islamization of knowledge' is a good example of how the idea of method or methodology (''manhaj'' and ''manhajiyyah'', the Arabic equivalents of method and methodology, which are the most popular words of the proponents of this view) can obscure deeper philosophical issues involved in the current discussions of science. Even though Faruqi’s project was proposed to Islamize the existing forms of knowledge imported from the West, his focus was exclusively on the humanities, leaving scientific knowledge virtually untouched. This was probably due to his conviction that the body of knowledge generated by modern natural sciences is neutral and as such requires no special attention. Thus, Faruqi’s work and that of IIIT after his death concentrated on the social sciences and education. This had two important consequences. First, Faruqi’s important work on Islamization provided his followers with a framework in which knowledge (''ilm'') came to be equated with social disciplines, thus ending up in a kind of sociologism. The prototype ofFaruqi’s project is, we may say, the modern social scientist entrusted as arbiter of the traditional Alim. Second, the exclusion of modern scientific knowledge from the scope of Islamization has led to negligent attitudes, to say the least, toward the secularizing effect of the modern scientific worldview. This leaves the Muslim social scientists, the ideal-types of the Islamization program, with no clue as to how to deal with the questions that modern scientific knowledge poses. Furthermore, to take the philosophical foundations of modern, natural sciences for granted is tantamount to reinforcing the dichotomy between the natural and human sciences, a dichotomy whose consequences continue to pose serious challenges to the validity of the forms of knowledge outside the domain of modern physical sciences.}}</ref> Despite Al-Faruqi's goal to Islamize Western knowledge, Kalin asserts, his focus "was exclusively on the humanities, leaving scientific knowledge virtually untouched."<ref name="Kalin" /> This omission, Kalin argues, led to unintended consequences: "First, Faruqi's work on Islamization provided his followers with a framework in which knowledge (''ilm'') came to be equated with social disciplines, thus ending up in a kind of sociologism... Second, the exclusion of modern scientific knowledge from the scope of Islamization has led to negligent attitudes... toward the secularizing effect of the modern scientific worldview."<ref name="Kalin" />
Kalin's critique suggests that al-Faruqi's limited engagement with scientific knowledge risks creating a framework overly centered on sociological interpretations of Islamic knowledge. By omitting the natural sciences, Kalin argues, al-Faruqi's approach inadvertently reinforces a secular divide between natural and human sciences that may leave modern Muslim intellectuals unequipped to address the philosophical and epistemological challenges posed by contemporary science.<ref name="Kalin" />
=== Critique of Zionism ===
Al-Faruqi was a vocal critic of [[Zionism]], viewing it as incompatible with [[Judaism]] due to its nationalist ideology.<ref name="Israel">{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Isma'il R. |title=Islam and the Problem of Israel |location=Kuala Lumpur |publisher=The Other Press |year=2003 |orig-year=1980 |pages=103–104 |language=en}}</ref> He argued that Zionism was fundamentally unjust, as it sought to displace Palestine’s indigenous population and seize their land, resources, and homes. He characterized it as "naked robbery by force of arms," accompanied by indiscriminate violence against civilians:
:{{quote| Its plan was to empty Palestine of its native inhabitants and to occupy their lands, farms, homes, and all movable properties. Zionism was guilty of naked robbery by force of arms; of wanton, indiscriminate slaughter of men, women, and children; of destruction of men's lives and properties.<ref>{{cite book |last=al-Faruqi |first=Ismail |title=Islam and the Problem of Israel |year=2003 |orig-year=1980 |location=Kuala Lumpur |publisher=The Other Press |isbn=983954134X |page=93 |language=en}}</ref>}}
Consequently, he maintained that Zionism's dismantling was necessary to restore justice.<ref name="Israel" />
Al-Faruqi envisioned an alternative path for Israeli Jews who renounced Zionism, suggesting they could live as an "ummatic community" within the Muslim world, where they could preserve their faith under Jewish law as interpreted by rabbinic courts supported within an Islamic framework.<ref name="Israel" /> This perspective highlighted his belief that Islamic governance could accommodate diverse communities without imposing on their religious practices:
:{{quote| [Islam] requires the Jews to set up their own rabbinic courts and put its whole executive power at its disposal. The ''shari'ah'', the law of Islam, demands of all Jews to submit themselves to the precepts of Jewish law as interpreted by the rabbinic courts, and treats defiance or contempt of the rabbinic court as rebellion against the Islamic state itself, on a par with like action on the part of a Muslim vis-à-vis the Islamic court.<ref name="Esposito1983">{{cite book |last=al-Faruqi |first=Ismail R. |chapter=Islam and Zionism |editor-first=John L. |editor-last=Esposito |title=Voices of Resurgent Islam |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |page=265 |language=en}}</ref>}}
Reflecting on Zionism's impact, al-Faruqi argued that rather than providing security for Jews, it had created a precarious existence in Israel, where life became defined by conflict and reliance on foreign powers:
:{{quote| Zionism has not only contributed to this sad state of affairs. It is directly responsible for it. How, then, can it be said that it had succeeded in providing security for the Jew? Even in the very heartland of Zionism, in Israel, the Jew sits in the midst of an armory, surrounding himself with barbed wire, minefields, and all kinds of weaponry to prevent an onslaught which he knows for certain is coming, sooner or later. His very existence is a regimented spartanism, due in greatest measure to the bounty of international imperialism and colonialism. Thus, Israel, the so-called greatest achievement of Zionism, is really its greatest failure. For the very being of the Zionist state rests, in final analysis, on the passing whim of international politics.<ref name="Israel" />}}
Al-Faruqi's critique of Zionism was rooted in his commitment to justice as defined within an Islamic worldview.<ref name="Esposito1983" />
== Legacy and impact ==
=== Scholarly achievements ===
Al-Faruqi contributed to Islamic studies through his extensive writings and active involvement in academic and interfaith organizations. He authored over 100 articles in scholarly journals and magazines and published 25 influential books,<ref name="Esposito2001" /> including ''Christian Ethics: A Systematic and Historical Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas'' (1967), ''[[Islam and the Problem of Israel]]'' (1980), and ''Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life'' (1982). These works addressed a wide range of topics, including ethics, theology, interfaith dialogue, and the integration of Islamic thought into contemporary academic disciplines.<ref name="Yusuf2014" />

Al-Faruqi was the first Muslim academic to engage in the phenomenological and history of religious approaches. He viewed these approaches as contributing to the appreciation of Islam as part of human religious history and enabling Muslim engagement in the modern study of religion and as a participant in building understanding between religions.<ref name="Yusuf2014" />

In 1973, al-Faruqi established the Islamic Studies Group in the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and chaired it for ten years.<ref name="Yusuf2014" /> This initiative provided a formal platform for Muslim scholars to engage in dialogue with scholars from other religious traditions, particularly in comparative religion and interfaith studies.<ref name="Yusuf2014" /> Besides his academic work, al-Faruqi held leadership positions such as vice president of the Inter-Religious Peace Colloquium and president of the American Islamic College in Chicago.<ref name="Ghamari2004" /><ref name="Fletcher2014" />

[[File:International Islamic University Malaysia temporary logo 1983.svg|thumb|left|The first logo used by IIUM (initially known as IIU).]]

In March 1977, al-Faruqi played a significant role in the First World Conference on Muslim Education in [[Makkah]]. This conference included participants such as Mohd Kamal Hassan, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, and Syed Ali Ashraf, among others. The conference laid the groundwork for establishing Islamic universities in [[Dhaka]], [[Islamabad]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Kampala]], and [[Niger]]. Al-Faruqi was instrumental in the conference's deliberations and the development of its action plans.<ref name="AJISS" />

He also served as an adviser to political leaders in the Muslim world, including Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq in Pakistan and Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia.<ref name="Yusuf2022" /> During Zia-ul-Haq's administration, al-Faruqi contributed to the establishment of the International Islamic University in Islamabad in 1980, which aimed to integrate Islamic values with contemporary academic disciplines. In Malaysia, al-Faruqi advised Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad, assisting in the foundation of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in 1983. Both institutions were established to combine religious and secular knowledge within a holistic educational framework.<ref name="Yusuf2022" /><ref name="Yusuf2019" />

In 1980, Ismail al-Faruqi co-founded the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT)<ref name="OxfordIslam" /> with Taha Jabir Alalwani, Abdul Hamid AbuSulayman, and Anwar Ibrahim. His involvement in interfaith dialogue promoted mutual understanding and cooperation among religious communities, fostering a global environment of peace and respect that highlighted the commonalities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yusuf |first=Imtiyaz |title=Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi's Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought |year=2012 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London |language=en}}</ref>

=== Contemporary relevance ===
Al-Faruqi's ideas on the Islamization of knowledge continue to resonate within contemporary Islamic thought, influencing curriculum development in universities such as the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) and the International Islamic University, Islamabad.<ref name="Yusuf2019">{{cite book |last=Yusuf |first=Imtiyaz |chapter=Isma'il al Faruqi: The Link Between Tudor and the Muslim World |title=Breakthrough to Dialogue: The Story of Temple University Department of Religion |editor=Leonard Swidler |publisher=iPub Global Connection |year=2019 |pages=179–199}}</ref> His emphasis on integrating Islamic principles with modern academic disciplines remains relevant among scholars and educators who aim to harmonize faith and reason. His work is frequently cited in academic conferences and publications related to Islamic thought and education.<ref name="Yusuf2014" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wan Sabri |first1=W. Y. |last2=Zuriati |first2=M. R. |last3=Tasnim |first3=A. R. |last4=Ahmad |first4=N. A. |year=2015 |title=Islamic Civilization: Its Significance in al-Faruqi's Islamization of Knowledge |journal=International Journal of Islamic Thought |volume=7 |issue=June |pages=49 |doi=10.24035/ijit.7.2015.005 |doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |issn=2232-1314}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shaikh |first=Saulat |title=Ismail al-Faruqi's Concept of the Islamization of Knowledge |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |year=2015 |pages=49–57 |language=en}}</ref>
Al-Faruqi's contributions to interfaith dialogue are also widely recognized. His approach emphasized finding common ethical and moral ground between faith traditions, particularly Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Scholars have noted that his focus on ethical principles over theological differences fostered mutual understanding and respect among religious communities.<ref name="Ghamari2004">{{cite journal |last=Ghamari-Tabrizi |first=Behrooz |title=Loving America and Longing for Home: Isma'il al-Faruqi and the Emergence of the Muslim Diaspora in North America |journal=International Migration |volume=42 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=62–86|doi=10.1111/j.0020-7985.2004.00281.x |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Khan |first=Rahim |title=Al-Faruqi's Interfaith Dialogue and Its Contemporary Significance |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |year=2018 |pages=209–223 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zain |first=Nurul |title=The Role of Ismail al-Faruqi in Interfaith Dialogue |journal=Global Journal of Management and Business Research Administration and Management |volume=13 |issue=10 |year=2013 |pages=10–18}}</ref> His framework has been influential in global efforts to promote peace and cooperation across religious divides.<ref name="Yusuf2014" />
Al-Faruqi's impact extends beyond academia into practical applications. His work in religious studies inspired the creation of related academic programs, particularly in institutions that have adopted his methodologies, such as the mandatory religious studies courses at the International Islamic University Malaysia, which aim to understand spiritual traditions and their civilizational significance comprehensively.<ref name="Yusuf2019"/>
Additionally, al-Faruqi's scholarly works, such as ''Christian Ethics''<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Ismail Raji |title=Christian Ethics: A Systematic and Historical Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas |year=1967 |publisher=McGill University Press |location=Montreal |oclc=450143 | language=en}}</ref> and ''Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Faruqi |first=Ismail Raji |title=Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths |year=1981 |publisher=IIIT |location=Herndon, VA | language=en}}</ref> continue to serve as key resources in interfaith dialogue and comparative religion studies. These works have shaped discussions in Islamic and Western academic circles, highlighting the intersections between these religious traditions.<ref name="Yusuf2014" /><ref name="Yusuf2019"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Malik |first=Mohd. Ashraf |title=Contribution of Muslim Scholars to Comparative Religions: Selected Works Study |journal=Insight Islamicus |volume=23 |year=2023 |pages=74–85 |language=en}}</ref>
His contributions have been recognized posthumously, particularly in communities like Montreal, where his scholarship and community-building efforts left a lasting impact.<ref name="Montreal" /><ref name="Ghamari2004"/>

== References ==
<references />

==Bibliography==
===Books===
* (1953) ''From Here We Start'', tr. from the Arabic of K.M. Khalid. [[Washington, DC]]: [[American Council of Learned Societies]]
* (1953) ''Our Beginning in Wisdom'', tr. from the Arabic of M. al Ghazali. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies
* (1953) ''The Policy of Tomorrow'', tr. from the Arabic of M. B. Ghali. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies
* (1962) ''`Urubah and Religion: An Analysis of the Dominant Ideas of Arabism and of Islam as Its Heights Moment of Consciousness'', vol. 1 of ''On Arabism'', [[Amsterdam]]: Djambatan
* (1964) ''Usul al Sahyuniyah fi al Din al Yahudi'' (An Analytical Study of the Growth of Particularism in Hebrew Scripture). [[Cairo]]: Institute of Higher Arabic Studies
* (1968) ''Christian Ethics: A Systematic and Historical Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas''. Montreal: [[McGill University Press]] and Amsterdam: Djambatan, Amsterdam
* (1980) ''Islam and the Problem of Israel''. [[London]]: The Islamic Council of Europe {{ISBN|983-9541-34-X}}
* (1982) ''Trialogue of the Abrahamic Faiths'', ed. [[Herndon, Virginia|Herndon]], [[Virginia|VA]]: IIIT {{ISBN|0-915957-25-6}}
* (1982) ''Islamization of Knowledge''. Herndon, VA: IIIT
* (1982) ''Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life''. [[Kuala Lumpur]]: IIIT
* (1985) ''Islam and Other Faiths''. [[Beltsville, Maryland|Beltsville]], [[Maryland|MD]]: Amana Publications
* (1986) ''The Cultural Atlas of Islam''. New York: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]]

===Posthumous===
* (2012) Imtiyaz Yusuf, ''Islam: Religion, Practice, Culture & World Order'', London: IIIT 
* (2021) Imtiyaz Yusuf, ''Essential Writings: Ismail Al Faruqi'', Kuala Lumpur: IBT Books

===Articles===
* "On the Ethics of the Brethren of Purity and Friends of Fidelity (''Ikhwan al Safa wa Khillan al Wafa''')", ''[[The Muslim World]]'', vol. L, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;109–21; no. 4, pp.&nbsp;252–58; vol. LI, no. 1, pp.&nbsp;18–24
* "On the Significance of Reinhold Niebuhr's Ideas of Society", ''[[Canadian Journal of Theology]]'', vol. VII, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;99–107. Reprinted in ''Muslim Life'', vol. XI, no. 3 (Summer 1964): 5–14

===In the press===
* ''An Anthology of Readings on Tawhid''. [[Kuwait]]: IIFSO
* ''Training Program for Islamic Youth''. Kuwait: IIFSO
* ''The Life of Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab''. [[Riyadh]]: The Ministry of Higher Education

== Further reading ==
* Muhammad Shafiq, ''Growth of Islamic Thought in North America: Focus on Isma'il Raji al Faruqi'', Amana Publications, 1994 
* Imtiyaz Yusuf, [https://www.amazon.com/Islam-Knowledge-Faruqis-Concept-Religion/dp/178076068X Islam and Knowledge: Al Faruqi's Concept of Religion in Islamic Thought] London: I. B. Tauris, 2012. Festschrift in honor of Prof. Ismail al-Faruqi.

==External Links==
* [https://ismailfaruqi.com Ismail Faruqi Online] Website on the life and works of Dr. Ismail Faruqi